SIMBAD references

Context. New spectroscopic surveys will increase the number of astronomical objects in need of characterisation by more than an order of magnitude. Machine learning tools are required to address this data deluge in a fast and accurate fashion. Most machine learning algorithms cannot directly estimate error, making them unsuitable for reliable science.
Aims. We aim to train a supervised deep-learning algorithm tailored for high-resolution observational stellar spectra. This algorithm accurately infers precise estimates while providing coherent estimates of uncertainties by leveraging information from both the neural network and the spectra.
Methods. We trained a conditional invertible neural network (cINN) on observational spectroscopic data obtained from the GIRAFFE spectrograph (HR 10 and HR 21 setups) within the Gaia-ESO survey. A key feature of cINN is its ability to produce the Bayesian posterior distribution of parameters for each spectrum. By analysing this distribution, we inferred stellar parameters and their corresponding uncertainties. We carried out several tests to investigate how parameters are inferred and errors are estimated.
Results. We achieved an accuracy of 28 K in T_eff, 0.06 dex in log ɡ, 0.03 dex in [Fe/H], and between 0.05 dex and 0.17 dex for the other abundances for high-quality spectra. Accuracy remains stable with low signal-to-noise ratio (between 5 and 25) spectra, with an accuracy of 39 K in T_eff, 0.08 dex in log ɡ, and 0.05 dex in [Fe/H]. The uncertainties obtained are well within the same order of magnitude. The network accurately reproduces astrophysical relationships both on the scale of the Milky Way and within smaller star clusters. We created a table containing the new parameters generated by our cINN.
Conclusions. This neural network represents a compelling proposition for future astronomical surveys. These derived uncertainties are coherent and can therefore be reused in future works as Bayesian priors.