SIMBAD references

Context. Characterizations of giant exoplanets such as β Pictoris b (hereafter β Pic b) are now routinely performed with multiple spectrographs and imagers exploring different spectral bandwidths and resolutions, allowing for atmospheric retrieval of spectra with or without the conservation of the planet spectral continuum. The accounting of data multimodality in the analysis could provide a more comprehensive determination of the planets physical and chemical properties and inform on their formation history.
Aims. We present the first VLTI observations at R_λ ∼4000 of β Pic b obtained for an exoplanet with GRAVITY at such a high resolution. We upgraded the forward modelling code ForMoSA to account for the data multimodality, including low-, medium-, and high-resolution spectroscopy based on both a direct model-data comparison and an analysis of cross-correlation signals. We used the ForMoSA code to refine the constraints on the atmospheric properties of the exoplanet and evaluated the sensitivity of the retrieved values to the input dataset.
Methods. We obtained four high-signal-to-noise (S/N ∼ 20) spectra of β Pic b in the K band with GRAVITY at R_λ ∼4000 conserving both the pseudo-continuum and the pattern of molecular absorptions. We used ForMoSA with four grids of self-consistent forward models (Exo-REM, ATMO, BT-Settl, and Sonora) to explore different T_eff, log(g), metallicity, C/O, and ¹²CO/¹³CO ratio values. We then combined the GRAVITY spectra with published 1-5 µm photometry (NaCo, VisAO, NICI, and SPHERE), low-to-mediumresolution (R_λ ≤ 700 broadband, 0.9-7 µm) spectra, and echelle spectra covering narrower bandwidths (R_λ ∼ 100 000, 2.1-5.2 µm).
Results. Sonora and Exo-REM are statistically preferred among all four models, regardless of the dataset used. Exo-REM predicts T_eff = 1607.45_–6.20^+4.85 K and log(g) = 4.46_–0.04^+0.02 dex when using only the GRAVITY epochs, whereas we have T_eff = 1502.74_–2.14^+2.32 K log(g) = 4.00 ± 0.01 dex when incorporating all available datasets. The inclusion of archival data significantly affects all retrieved posteriors. When using all datasets, C/O mostly remains solar (0.552_–0.002^+0.003), while [M/H] reaches super-solar values (0.50 ± 0.01). We report the first tentative constraint on the isotopic ratio log(¹²CO/¹³CO) = 1.12_–0.08^+0.11 in β Pic b's atmosphere; however, we note that this detection remains inconclusive due to telluric residuals affecting both the GRAVITY and SINFONI data. Additionally, we estimated the bolometric luminosity as log(L/L_⊙) = -4.01_–0.05^+0.04 dex. Using a system age of 23 ± 3 Myr, along with this bolometric luminosity and the constraints on the dynamical mass of β Pic b, we were able to constrain the maximum of heavy element content of the planet to be on the order of 5% (20-80 M_Earth).
Conclusions. The joint access to the pseudo-continuum and molecular lines in the K band provided by GRAVITY have a significant impact on the retrieved metallicity, possibly owing to the collision-induced absorption driving the continuum shape of the K band. The echelle spectra do not dominate the final fit with respect to lower resolution data covering a broader portion of the spectral energy distribution and the latter keeps encapsulating more robust information on T_eff. Future multimodal frameworks should include a weighting scheme to account for the bandwidth and central wavelength of the observations.