2014ApJ...791..103B

Formation of planets in the Neptune size range with low-mass, but voluminous, H₂/He gaseous envelopes is modeled by detailed numerical simulations according to the core-nucleated accretion scenario. Formation locations ranging from 0.5 to 4 AU from a star of 1 M_☉ are considered. The final planets have heavy-element cores of 2.2-2.5 M_⊕and envelopes in the range 0.037-0.16 M_⊕. After the formation process, which lasts 2 Myr or less, the planets evolve at constant mass up to an age of several Gyr. For assumed equilibrium temperatures of 250, 500, and 1000 K, their calculated final radii are compared with those observed by the Kepler spacecraft. For the particular case of Kepler-11 f, we address the question whether it could have formed in situ or whether migration from a formation location farther out in the disk is required.