2018ApJ...864..105H

Collisionless shocks with low sonic Mach numbers, M_s≲4, are expected to accelerate cosmic ray (CR) protons via diffusive shock acceleration (DSA) in the intracluster medium (ICM). However, observational evidence for CR protons in the ICM has yet to be established. Performing particle-in-cell simulations, we study the injection of protons into DSA and the early development of a nonthermal particle population in weak shocks in high-β (≃100) plasmas. Reflection of incident protons, self-excitation of plasma waves via CR-driven instabilities, and multiple cycles of shock drift acceleration are essential to the early acceleration of CR protons in supercritical quasi-parallel shocks. We find that only in ICM shocks with M_s≳M_s^* ~2.25, a sufficient fraction of incoming protons is reflected by the overshoot in the shock electric potential and magnetic mirror at locally perpendicular magnetic fields, leading to efficient excitation of magnetic waves via CR streaming instabilities and the injection into the DSA process. Since a significant fraction of ICM shocks have M_s< M_s^* , CR proton acceleration in the ICM might be less efficient than previously expected. This may explain why the diffuse gamma-ray emission from galaxy clusters due to proton-proton collisions has not been detected so far.