2024A&A...684A..26K

Context. Observational breakthroughs in the field of exoplanets in the last decade have motivated the development of numerous theoretical models, such as those describing atmospheres and mass loss, which is believed to be one of the main drivers of planetary evolution.
Aims. We outline for which types of close-in planets in the Neptune-mass range the accurate treatment of photoionisation effects is most relevant, particularly with respect to atmospheric mass loss and the parameters relevant for interpreting observations, such as temperature and ion fraction.
Methods. We developed the Cloudy e Hydro Ancora INsieme (CHAIN) model, which combines our 1D hydrodynamic upper atmosphere model with the non-local thermodynamical equilibrium (NLTE) photoionisation and radiative transfer code Cloudy accounting for ionisation, dissociation, detailed atomic level populations, and chemical reactions for all chemical elements up to zinc. The hydro-dynamic code is responsible for describing the outflow, while Cloudy solves the photoionisation and heating of planetary atmospheres. We applied CHAIN to model the upper atmospheres of a range of Neptune-like planets with masses between 1 and 50 M_⊕, also varying the orbital parameters.
Results. For the majority of warm and hot Neptunes, we find slower and denser outflows, with lower ion fractions, compared to the predictions of the hydrodynamic model alone. Furthermore, we find significantly different temperature profiles between CHAIN and the hydrodynamic model alone, though the peak values are similar for similar atmospheric compositions. The mass-loss rates predicted by CHAIN are higher for hot strongly irradiated planets and lower for more moderate planets. All differences between the two models are strongly correlated with the amount of high-energy irradiation. Finally, we find that the hydrodynamic effects significantly impact ionisation and heating.
Conclusions. The impact of the precise photoionisation treatment provided by Cloudy strongly depends on the system parameters. This suggests that some of the simplifications typically employed in hydrodynamic modelling might lead to systematic errors when studying planetary atmospheres, even at a population-wide level.