2024A&A...687A.290G

Aims. We aim to measure the impact of our mass-loss recipe in the evolution of massive stars at the metallicity of the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC).
Methods. We used the Geneva-evolution code (GENEC) to run evolutionary tracks for stellar masses ranging from 20 to 85 M_⊙ at SMC metallicity (Z_SMC = 0.002). We upgraded the recipe for stellar winds by replacing Vink's formula with our self-consistent m-CAK prescription, which reduces the value of the mass-loss rate, Ṁ, by a factor of between two and six depending on the mass range.
Results. The impact of our new [weaker] winds is wide, and it can be divided between direct and indirect impact. For the most massive models (60 and 85 M_⊙) with Ṁ ≳ 2 × 10^–7M_⊙ yr^–1, the impact is direct because lower mass loss make stars remove less envelope, and therefore they remain more massive and less chemically enriched at their surface at the end of their main sequence (MS) phase. For the less massive models (20 and 25 M_⊙) with Ṁ ≲ 2 × 10^–8M_⊙ yr^–1, the impact is indirect because lower mass loss means the stars keep high rotational velocities for a longer period of time, thus extending the H-core burning lifetime and subsequently reaching the end of the MS with higher surface enrichment. In either case, given that the conditions at the end of the H-core burning change, the stars will lose more mass during their He-core burning stages anyway. For the case of M_zams = 20-40 M_⊙, our models predict stars will evolve through the Hertzsprung gap, from O-type supergiants to blue supergiants (BSGs), and finally red supergiants (RSGs), with larger mass fractions of helium compared to old evolution models. New models also sets the minimal initial mass required for a single star to become a Wolf-Rayet (WR) at metallicity Z = 0.002 at M_zams = 85 M_⊙.
Conclusions. These results reinforce the importance of upgrading mass-loss prescriptions in evolution models, in particular for the earlier stages of stellar lifetime, even for Z ≪ Z_⊙. New values for Ṁ need to be complemented with upgrades in additional features such as convective-core overshooting and distribution of rotational velocities, besides more detailed spectroscopical observations from projects such as XShootU, in order to provide a robust framework for the study of massive stars at low-metallicity environments.