2025A&A...696A.233B

The old G3V star Kepler-10 is known to host two transiting planets, the ultra-short-period super-Earth Kepler-10 b (P_b = 0.837 d; R_b = 1.47 R_⊕) and the long-period sub-Neptune Kepler-10 c (P_c = 45.294 d; R_c = 2.35 R_⊕), and a non-transiting planet that causes variations in the Kepler-10 c transit times. Measurements of the mass of Kepler-10 c in the literature have shown disagreement, depending on the radial-velocity dataset and/or the modeling technique used. Here we report on the analysis of almost 300 high-precision radial velocities gathered with the HARPS-N spectrograph at the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo over ∼11 years, and extracted with the YARARA-v2 tool, which corrects for possible systematics and/or low-level activity variations at the spectrum level. To model these radial velocities, we used three different noise models and various numerical techniques, which all converged to the solution: M_b = 3.24 ± 0.32 M_⊕ (10σ) and ρ_b = 5.54 ± 0.64 g cm^–3 for planet b; M_c = 11.29 ± 1.24 M_⊕ (9σ) and ρ_c = 4.75 ± 0.53 g cm^–3 for planet c; and M_d sin i = 12.00 ± 2.15 M_⊕ (6 σ) and P_d = 151.06 ± 0.48 d for the non-transiting planet Kepler-10 d. This solution is further supported by the analysis of the Kepler-10 c transit timing variations and their simultaneous modeling with the HARPS-N radial velocities. While Kepler-10 b is consistent with a rocky composition and a small or no iron core, Kepler-10 c may be a water world that formed beyond the water snowline and subsequently migrated inward.