2025MNRAS.539.2561C

The direct-collapse scenario, which predicts the formation of supermassive stars (SMSs) as precursors to supermassive black holes (SMBHs), has been explored primarily under the assumption of metal-free conditions. However, environments exposed to strong far-ultraviolet (FUV) radiation, which is another requirement for the direct collapse, are often chemically enriched to varying degrees. In this study, we perform radiation hydrodynamic simulations of star-cluster formation in clouds with finite metallicities, $Z=10^{-6}$ to $10^{-2}\, \mathrm{ Z}_{\odot }$, incorporating detailed thermal and chemical processes and radiative feedback from forming stars. Extending the simulations to approximately 2 Myr, we demonstrate that SMSs with masses exceeding $10^4\,\mathrm{ M}_\odot$ can form even in metal-enriched clouds with $Z \lesssim 10^{-3}\,\mathrm{ Z}_{\odot }$. The accretion process in these cases, driven by 'supercompetitive accretion,' preferentially channels gas into central massive stars in spite of small (sub-pc) scale fragmentation. At $Z \simeq 10^{-2} \,{\rm {Z}}_{\odot }$, however, enhanced cooling leads to intense fragmentation on larger scales, resulting in the formation of dense star clusters dominated by very massive stars with $10^3 {\rm M}_{\odot }$ rather than SMSs. These clusters resemble young massive or globular clusters observed in the distant and local universe, exhibiting compact morphologies and high stellar surface densities. Our findings suggest that SMS formation is viable below a metallicity threshold of approximately $10^{-3} \,{\rm {Z}}_{\odot }$, significantly increasing the number density of massive seed black holes to levels sufficient to account for the ubiquitous SMBHs observed in the local universe. Moreover, above this metallicity, this scenario naturally explains the transition from SMS formation to dense stellar cluster formation.